mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment
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[178] In the Mamluk era, the iqta was an emir's principal source of income,[179] and starting in 1337,[180] Mamluk iqta holders would lease or sell rights to their iqtaat to non-mamluks in order to derive greater revenues. [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. However, Aydughdi's growing ambitions made Aybak view him as a threat. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. [123] Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrines were regarded [53], Meanwhile, Louis IX of France launched the Eighth Crusade, this time targeting Tunis with the intention of ultimately invading Egypt. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. [126] The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the Pact of Umar which gave Christians and Jews dhimmi (protected peoples) status, ultimately determined the taxes that Christians and Jews paid to the sultanate, including the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), whether a house of worship could be constructed and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. [169] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[170] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[169][170] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [78] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. "[155], The Mamluk sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was virtually restricted to mamluks, i.e. Winter, ed. Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Illustration by Ro4444 published on 13 September 2018 Download Full Size Image A map indicating the territory of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Cairo, 1317 CE. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. These mamluks were called the "Salihiyyah" (singular "Salihi") after their master. [111] According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language. Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. [148] Generally, the vice-regent of Egypt was the most senior na'ib, followed by the governor of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the governors of al-Karak, Safad, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. [126] The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two respective communities. The current sultan, as-Salih Ayyub, of the Ayyubid dynasty, dies during their invasion. [172] The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, which consisted of gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulus. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars, Qalawun (r.12791290) and al-Ashraf Khalil (r.12901293), they conquered the Crusader states, expanded into Makuria (Nubia), Cyrenaica, the Hejaz and southern Anatolia. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? 4. [100], Before Shaykh died in 1421, he sought to offset the power of the Circassian mamluks by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as atabeg al-asakir in 1420 to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. [4] The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. Abstract: Agriculture has been the main source of the economy for all dynasties established in Egypt and the Mamluk kingdom was no exception. [182], Over time, the iqta system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of kharaj (taxable lands) were appropriated as iqta lands in order to meet the fiscal needs of the Mamluk military institution, namely payment of Mamluk officers and their subordinates. The Ilkhanate licked their wounds and returned the same year, only to be defeated again at the First Battle of Homs. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. Its 100% free. [115] Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. [110] Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. [184], In Egypt, Mamluk centralization over agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine for a number of reasons. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [46] The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. [45] However, Baybars success in establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of the Mamluk Sultanate. [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. [160] The halqa had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. Qalawun's forces were significantly outnumbered by the estimated 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian-Seljuk coalition, but marched north from Damascus to meet the Ilkhanid army at Homs. [19] While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts that the Salihiyyah's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten as-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes that the Salihiyyah developed an autonomy within the state that fell short of such loyalty. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. While the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II was engaged in Europe, a new round of conflict broke out between Egypt and the Safavid dynasty in Persia in 1501. After thorough training in various fields such as martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. [165] Starting with the reign of Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration maintained lists of all emirs throughout the sultanate and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army should they be mobilized for war. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Rather, it caused disruption of agricultural activities, destruction of crops and economic loss. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. [55] In 1275, the Mamluk governor of Qus, with Bedouin allies, launched an expedition against Makuria, defeating king David in battle at Dongola in 1276, and installed Shakanda as king. There were four muhtasibs based in Cairo, Alexandria, al-Fustat and Lower Egypt. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. [173] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. [191] By the 15th century, internal upheaval as a result on Mamluk power struggles, diminishing iqta revenues as a result of plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. [19] As-Salih believed Damietta should not have been evacuated and was rumored to have threatened punitive action against the Damietta garrison. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. The land on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. [89] Sha'ban was able to rule as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to Mecca to perform the Hajj. Among them was that virtually all agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine, there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were thus determined at the local level. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. [37] The Bahriyyah subsequently raided areas around Syria, threatening an-Nasir Yusuf's power in Damascus. [56] In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a second, large incoming Ilkhanid army. [168] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. [152] Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was nonetheless a reality at times,[74] particularly during the Bahri regime, where Baybars' sons Barakah and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. Sultanate versus Caliphate, Sultan versus Caliph: What's the difference? [67] An-Nasir Muhammad went further in imposing his rule by intervening to have al-Wathiq succeed Caliph al-Mustakfi, as well as compelling the qadi to issue legal rulings that advanced his interests. One of the Mamluk Sultanate's first tests and most significant accomplishments would be against the mighty Mongol Empire. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. But how did a former class of enslaved people come to the head of the Islamic world? [26] Moreover, an electoral college dominated by the Salihiyyah convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between an-Nasir Yusuf of Damascus and al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [119] Under Sultan Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids,[119] and Ismailism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [190] Early into their rule, the Mamluks sought to expand their role in foreign trade, and to this end Baybars signed a commercial treaty with Genoa, while Qalawun signed a similar agreement with Ceylon. [71] The first of an-Nasir Muhammad's son to accede to the sultanate was Abu Bakr, who an-Nasir Muhammad designated as his successor before his death. [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. [201], Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. The Mamluks were well trained in combat, governance, and other skills in their slavery, equipping them with the tools necessary to rule a state. Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. [15] A mamluk was highly committed to his master, to whom he often referred as "father", and was in turn treated more as a kinsman than as a slave. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. Art depicting the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [98] In that same year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo before proceeding to sack Damascus. [100] To that end, his fiscal administrator led tax collection expeditions that were akin to plundering throughout the sultanate to compensate for the tax arrears that had accumulated under Faraj's reign. [180] The revenues emanating from the iqta also served as a more stable source of income than other methods the Mamluks sometimes employed, including tax hikes, the sale of administrative posts and extortion of the population. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. [131] The 14th century saw a large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam[131] as a result of the intermittent persecution and destruction of the churches[129] and forced conversion to Islam. [195] Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. [71] Following the dtente, an-Nasir Muhammad was able to usher in a period of stability and prosperity in the sultanate through the enacting of major political, economic and military reforms that were ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawunid-Bahri regime. [28], Aybak was one of the oldest of the Salihi mamluks and a senior member of as-Salih's inner circle, despite only being an emir awsat (middle-ranked emir). "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. Original image by Ro4444. The Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell? [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. [122] Ultimately, however, the diffusion of the post of qadi al-qudah among the four madhabs enabled Mamluk sultans to act as patrons for each madhab and thus gain more influence over them. [101] With regards to European pirates, he launched campaigns against Cyprus in 14251426, during which the island's king was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. [98] Six months later, Shakyh eased al-Musta'in out of power after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. [136] The Greek Orthodox Church experienced a decline following the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center, Antioch, and the Timurid destruction of Aleppo and Damascus in 1400. Later, when the Mamluks replaced the Ayyubid Sultanate, they controlled Egypt, the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), usurping power from his successor in 1250. [18] Despite his close relationship with his mamluks, tensions existed between as-Salih and the Salihiyyah, and a number of Salihi mamluks were imprisoned or exiled throughout as-Salih's reign. [98], Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh, who Faraj sent a total of seven military expeditions against during his reign. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. The Ilkhanate was poised to tread into a new continent: Africa. Profits from trade in these regions led consolidation of their political control. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [162] The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. Much of the art in the Mamluk Sultanate was inspired by or purchased from trading partners in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean Sea Trades. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. [19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). [30] The Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah were represented by their patron, Faris ad-Din Aktay, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter saw Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. The Mamlk sultanate was originally established in Egypt but soon came to control Palestine and Syria. What better characterizes Mamluk-era urban architecture? [45], Another major component to Baybar's rule was intrastate communication. From Arabic, Mamluk (or Mameluke) translates as "one who is owned." [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. Interactions with the Environment [167] The offices of ustadar (majordomo), hajib (chamberlain), emir jandar and khazindar (treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars established the additional offices of dawadar, emir akhur, ru'us al-nawab and emir majlis. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. Clearly, the Mamluks were not a military force to be trifled with. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. [58] The defeat of the Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts in Syria. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. [197] This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . Everything you need for your studies in one place. [57] However, the latter's ineptness precipitated a power struggle that ended with Qalawun being elected sultan in November 1279. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns (figureheads). [45] During his early reign and through heavy financial expense, Baybars rebuilt and stringently trained the Mamluk army, which grew from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. [146], The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems that they inherited from the Ayyubid state. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as qadi al-qudah (chief judge) and instead had a qadi al-qudah appointed from each of the four madhabs. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [110] Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans showed particular favoritism towards the Shafi'i madhab, while also promoting the other major Sunni madhabs, namely the Maliki, Hanbali and Hanafi. Credit Agricole Egypt. The early Mamlks carried out a host of large-scale construction projects developing, extending, and intensifying the irrigation system, widening and deepening canals, erecting and strengthening dikes, and constructing dams and sluices that helped to control the system during the Nile flood season. . [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. [76] This permissiveness, which manifested in far more relaxed conditions for new mamluks, encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the country, to the point that parents would sell their children as mamluks with the belief the children would enjoy an improved standard of living. [193] In the late 15th and early 16th centuries the Portuguese Empire's expansion into Africa and Asia began to significantly decrease the revenues of the Mamluk-Venetian monopoly on the trans-Mediterranean trade. [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. [109], By the time the Mamluks took power, Arabic had already been established as the language of religion, culture and the bureaucracy in Egypt, and was widespread among non-Muslim communities there as well. [71] Concurrent with an-Nasir Muhammad's reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new political entities. [98] The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, however, and had Caliph al-Musta'in installed; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. [117], A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major madhabs (schools of thought) and various Sufi orders, but also small communities of Ismai'li Shia Muslims,[118] particularly in Upper Egypt. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. He left about 20,000 men to fortify their position in the Middle East. From the Medieval to the Early Modern Period, the Mamluks reigned during a transformative era in Dar Al-Islam as the Islamic Caliphates fell and new kinds of states arose, even states governed by former slaves. Political turmoil and assassinations were not uncommon within the Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Caliphate. The latter's forces fell into a Mamluk trap once they reached the springs of Ain Jalut, with Baybars's men turning around to confront the Mongols and Qutuz's units ambushing the Mongols from the hills. 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mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment
[178] In the Mamluk era, the iqta was an emir's principal source of income,[179] and starting in 1337,[180] Mamluk iqta holders would lease or sell rights to their iqtaat to non-mamluks in order to derive greater revenues. [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. However, Aydughdi's growing ambitions made Aybak view him as a threat. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. [123] Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrines were regarded [53], Meanwhile, Louis IX of France launched the Eighth Crusade, this time targeting Tunis with the intention of ultimately invading Egypt. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. [126] The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the Pact of Umar which gave Christians and Jews dhimmi (protected peoples) status, ultimately determined the taxes that Christians and Jews paid to the sultanate, including the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), whether a house of worship could be constructed and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. [169] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[170] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[169][170] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [78] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. "[155], The Mamluk sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was virtually restricted to mamluks, i.e. Winter, ed. Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Illustration by Ro4444 published on 13 September 2018 Download Full Size Image A map indicating the territory of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Cairo, 1317 CE. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. These mamluks were called the "Salihiyyah" (singular "Salihi") after their master. [111] According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language. Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. [148] Generally, the vice-regent of Egypt was the most senior na'ib, followed by the governor of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the governors of al-Karak, Safad, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. [126] The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two respective communities. The current sultan, as-Salih Ayyub, of the Ayyubid dynasty, dies during their invasion. [172] The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, which consisted of gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulus. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars, Qalawun (r.12791290) and al-Ashraf Khalil (r.12901293), they conquered the Crusader states, expanded into Makuria (Nubia), Cyrenaica, the Hejaz and southern Anatolia. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? 4. [100], Before Shaykh died in 1421, he sought to offset the power of the Circassian mamluks by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as atabeg al-asakir in 1420 to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. [4] The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. Abstract: Agriculture has been the main source of the economy for all dynasties established in Egypt and the Mamluk kingdom was no exception. [182], Over time, the iqta system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of kharaj (taxable lands) were appropriated as iqta lands in order to meet the fiscal needs of the Mamluk military institution, namely payment of Mamluk officers and their subordinates. The Ilkhanate licked their wounds and returned the same year, only to be defeated again at the First Battle of Homs. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. Its 100% free. [115] Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. [110] Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. [184], In Egypt, Mamluk centralization over agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine for a number of reasons. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". [46] The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. [45] However, Baybars success in establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of the Mamluk Sultanate. [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. [160] The halqa had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. Qalawun's forces were significantly outnumbered by the estimated 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian-Seljuk coalition, but marched north from Damascus to meet the Ilkhanid army at Homs. [19] While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts that the Salihiyyah's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten as-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes that the Salihiyyah developed an autonomy within the state that fell short of such loyalty. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. While the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II was engaged in Europe, a new round of conflict broke out between Egypt and the Safavid dynasty in Persia in 1501. After thorough training in various fields such as martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. [165] Starting with the reign of Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration maintained lists of all emirs throughout the sultanate and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army should they be mobilized for war. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Rather, it caused disruption of agricultural activities, destruction of crops and economic loss. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. [55] In 1275, the Mamluk governor of Qus, with Bedouin allies, launched an expedition against Makuria, defeating king David in battle at Dongola in 1276, and installed Shakanda as king. There were four muhtasibs based in Cairo, Alexandria, al-Fustat and Lower Egypt. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. [173] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. [191] By the 15th century, internal upheaval as a result on Mamluk power struggles, diminishing iqta revenues as a result of plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. [19] As-Salih believed Damietta should not have been evacuated and was rumored to have threatened punitive action against the Damietta garrison. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. The land on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. [89] Sha'ban was able to rule as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to Mecca to perform the Hajj. Among them was that virtually all agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine, there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were thus determined at the local level. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. [37] The Bahriyyah subsequently raided areas around Syria, threatening an-Nasir Yusuf's power in Damascus. [56] In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a second, large incoming Ilkhanid army. [168] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. [152] Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was nonetheless a reality at times,[74] particularly during the Bahri regime, where Baybars' sons Barakah and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. Sultanate versus Caliphate, Sultan versus Caliph: What's the difference? [67] An-Nasir Muhammad went further in imposing his rule by intervening to have al-Wathiq succeed Caliph al-Mustakfi, as well as compelling the qadi to issue legal rulings that advanced his interests. One of the Mamluk Sultanate's first tests and most significant accomplishments would be against the mighty Mongol Empire. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. But how did a former class of enslaved people come to the head of the Islamic world? [26] Moreover, an electoral college dominated by the Salihiyyah convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between an-Nasir Yusuf of Damascus and al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [119] Under Sultan Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids,[119] and Ismailism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [190] Early into their rule, the Mamluks sought to expand their role in foreign trade, and to this end Baybars signed a commercial treaty with Genoa, while Qalawun signed a similar agreement with Ceylon. [71] The first of an-Nasir Muhammad's son to accede to the sultanate was Abu Bakr, who an-Nasir Muhammad designated as his successor before his death. [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. [201], Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. The Mamluks were well trained in combat, governance, and other skills in their slavery, equipping them with the tools necessary to rule a state. Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. [15] A mamluk was highly committed to his master, to whom he often referred as "father", and was in turn treated more as a kinsman than as a slave. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. Art depicting the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [98] In that same year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo before proceeding to sack Damascus. [100] To that end, his fiscal administrator led tax collection expeditions that were akin to plundering throughout the sultanate to compensate for the tax arrears that had accumulated under Faraj's reign. [180] The revenues emanating from the iqta also served as a more stable source of income than other methods the Mamluks sometimes employed, including tax hikes, the sale of administrative posts and extortion of the population. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. However, they were still expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. [131] The 14th century saw a large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam[131] as a result of the intermittent persecution and destruction of the churches[129] and forced conversion to Islam. [195] Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. [71] Following the dtente, an-Nasir Muhammad was able to usher in a period of stability and prosperity in the sultanate through the enacting of major political, economic and military reforms that were ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawunid-Bahri regime. [28], Aybak was one of the oldest of the Salihi mamluks and a senior member of as-Salih's inner circle, despite only being an emir awsat (middle-ranked emir). "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. Original image by Ro4444. The Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell? [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. [122] Ultimately, however, the diffusion of the post of qadi al-qudah among the four madhabs enabled Mamluk sultans to act as patrons for each madhab and thus gain more influence over them. [101] With regards to European pirates, he launched campaigns against Cyprus in 14251426, during which the island's king was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. [98] Six months later, Shakyh eased al-Musta'in out of power after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. [136] The Greek Orthodox Church experienced a decline following the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center, Antioch, and the Timurid destruction of Aleppo and Damascus in 1400. Later, when the Mamluks replaced the Ayyubid Sultanate, they controlled Egypt, the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), usurping power from his successor in 1250. [18] Despite his close relationship with his mamluks, tensions existed between as-Salih and the Salihiyyah, and a number of Salihi mamluks were imprisoned or exiled throughout as-Salih's reign. [98], Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh, who Faraj sent a total of seven military expeditions against during his reign. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. The Ilkhanate was poised to tread into a new continent: Africa. Profits from trade in these regions led consolidation of their political control. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [162] The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. Much of the art in the Mamluk Sultanate was inspired by or purchased from trading partners in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean Sea Trades. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. [19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). [30] The Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah were represented by their patron, Faris ad-Din Aktay, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter saw Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. The Mamlk sultanate was originally established in Egypt but soon came to control Palestine and Syria. What better characterizes Mamluk-era urban architecture? [45], Another major component to Baybar's rule was intrastate communication. From Arabic, Mamluk (or Mameluke) translates as "one who is owned." [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. Interactions with the Environment [167] The offices of ustadar (majordomo), hajib (chamberlain), emir jandar and khazindar (treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars established the additional offices of dawadar, emir akhur, ru'us al-nawab and emir majlis. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. Clearly, the Mamluks were not a military force to be trifled with. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. [58] The defeat of the Ilkhanids allowed Qalawun to proceed and eliminate the remaining Crusader outposts in Syria. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. [197] This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . Everything you need for your studies in one place. [57] However, the latter's ineptness precipitated a power struggle that ended with Qalawun being elected sultan in November 1279. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns (figureheads). [45] During his early reign and through heavy financial expense, Baybars rebuilt and stringently trained the Mamluk army, which grew from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. [146], The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems that they inherited from the Ayyubid state. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as qadi al-qudah (chief judge) and instead had a qadi al-qudah appointed from each of the four madhabs. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [110] Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans showed particular favoritism towards the Shafi'i madhab, while also promoting the other major Sunni madhabs, namely the Maliki, Hanbali and Hanafi. Credit Agricole Egypt. The early Mamlks carried out a host of large-scale construction projects developing, extending, and intensifying the irrigation system, widening and deepening canals, erecting and strengthening dikes, and constructing dams and sluices that helped to control the system during the Nile flood season. . [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. [76] This permissiveness, which manifested in far more relaxed conditions for new mamluks, encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the country, to the point that parents would sell their children as mamluks with the belief the children would enjoy an improved standard of living. [193] In the late 15th and early 16th centuries the Portuguese Empire's expansion into Africa and Asia began to significantly decrease the revenues of the Mamluk-Venetian monopoly on the trans-Mediterranean trade. [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. [109], By the time the Mamluks took power, Arabic had already been established as the language of religion, culture and the bureaucracy in Egypt, and was widespread among non-Muslim communities there as well. [71] Concurrent with an-Nasir Muhammad's reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new political entities. [98] The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, however, and had Caliph al-Musta'in installed; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. [117], A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major madhabs (schools of thought) and various Sufi orders, but also small communities of Ismai'li Shia Muslims,[118] particularly in Upper Egypt. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. He left about 20,000 men to fortify their position in the Middle East. From the Medieval to the Early Modern Period, the Mamluks reigned during a transformative era in Dar Al-Islam as the Islamic Caliphates fell and new kinds of states arose, even states governed by former slaves. Political turmoil and assassinations were not uncommon within the Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Caliphate. The latter's forces fell into a Mamluk trap once they reached the springs of Ain Jalut, with Baybars's men turning around to confront the Mongols and Qutuz's units ambushing the Mongols from the hills. 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